Water
The impact of a large comet will destroy or severely damage the aboveground infrastructure. This includes electrical power generation systems, transmission lines, waste treatment facilities, water plants, bridges, fuel depots, and dams. This is everything we take for granted: electricity, water, sewage and transportation. But much of the underground infrastructures will survive. This includes underground water pipes, underground pumps, buried transmission and communication lines, sewer pipes, underground fuel tanks. In general, we will have only small bits-and-pieces of the infrastructure but not complete systems. One of the most critical of these systems is the water supply. Water is essential for sustaining human life, for survival.
Background
In cities and suburbs, the water supply is known as city water. In general, city water is surface water tapped from rivers, lakes, and man-made reservoirs. This water is processed using aerators, filtration and chemical treatment in order to make it safe for drinking.
In the country, the water is tapped from underground aquifers using drilled wells, driven wells, hand dug wells and springs. Water that comes from a well or spring is water that began as rainwater, that fell to the Earth and seeped into the ground and over time filled the porous space beneath the Earth, the underground aquifers. As the water passes through the aquifer, it passes through natural earthen filters that cleanse out many impurities. The water can also pick up natural minerals that give country water a natural appearance, taste and odor. These include iron water, sulfur water and hard water. Water from some wells and springs have been contaminated with chemicals, such as petroleum, PCBs, that can make the water dangerous to drink. Specific areas known to have groundwater contamination are called delineated areas. If the well or spring is not properly sealed or if organic waste is allowed to flow into the well site, the water can become contaminated with bacteria.
Stage 1 – Drinking Water Storage
A 30-day supply of water should be stored in the Stage 1 Shelters. The surface water supply and to a degree, the underground water supply will be contaminated by the impact event. This 30-day supply of water will allow the shelter time to transition to a post-impact source of water and to develop a water treatment capability.
One method for storing water is the use of 55 gallon plastic water barrels. An average person requires a minimum of 2 quarts of water per day. For a Shelter Complex containing 800 individuals, this would equate to a requirement of 400 gallons of drinkable water per day. Eleven barrels per shelter should provide storage for a 30 supply of water. The barrels should be lowered into the shelter and then filled. For long-term storage, water should be sterilized or disinfected. Water stored in plastic or glass containers can be chemically disinfected for long-term storage by treating each gallon with 16 drops of liquid chlorine bleach (Clorox or Puree type bleaches, containing 4% to 6% sodium hypo chlorite). Only regular household bleach should be used, not "fresh scent" bleach. Eleven teaspoons of bleach will disinfects 55-gallons of water. This level of treatment will prevent growth of microorganisms during storage.
In Stage 1, conserve water. Use stored water for drinking only, not for washing. Washing must wait, until a stable water supply is set up in Stage 2.
Stage 2 – Water Infrastructure Planning
Water requirements during Stage 1 and the early part of Stage 2 will be supplied by stored water. A stable source of water for the remainder of Stage 2 must be planned for. Planning should provide for a primary water system and in case of damage or destruction, a back-up approach. A team of approximately 5 to 10 individuals should be formed to work solutions for water infrastructure planning and construction. Most of this work must be done prior to impact. Trying to dig a well in pitch-blackness with an impact winter approaching will be difficult at best.
A steady supply of water will be needed during Stage 2. This supply must be relatively close to the site selected for the Stage 2 shelters. Water will be the primary driver for where to locate the Stage 2 Shelter Complex. The location of the Stage 1 Shelter Complex will seek high ground, high above the water table. The location of the Stage 2 Shelter Complex will seek a middle ground between the ridges & hills and the creeks, rivers, & lakes down below. Obtaining clean drinking water, may not have just one solution but could take many forms, and require significant degree of time, effort, and hard work. Securing a steady supply of drinking water is not a one-size-fits-all solution.
Perform a site survey and locate potential water sources. Look at what exist in the immediate local (1/2 mile) of the Stage 1 Shelter Complex: drilled or driven wells, springs, dug wells, the depth of existing wells, quality of water (contamination), surface water (rivers, lakes). Map the location of all underground water in the vicinity of the Stage 1 site. Select the Stage 2 site location. The landowners and their families, of the site selected for the Stage 1 Shelter and the Stage 2 Shelter, should be key members of the shelter site complex.
There is a Website called Water for the World. This packed full website is focused on practical information on rural water supplies, sanitation and disease. The material is in PDF format. I recommend that you download this information and save it for use in Stage 3. The website uses metric units of measure, be prepared to make the conversions. I found the Technical Notes RWS 2.D.1 Designing Hand Dug Wells and RWS 3.D.3 Designing a Slow Sand Filter to be especially interesting.
Stage 2 – Water Infrastructure Construction
Existing Drilled/Driven Well
In a driven well, a small diameter pipe is driven into soft earth, such as gravel and sand, until it reaches the water table. Typically this is done with a truck-mounted percussion (cable tool).
In a drilled well, a truck-mounted air or hydraulic drill rig, uses a large rotary drill bit to drill into the earth. Percussion bits can be used to smash through rock. Large auger bits can be used if the ground is soft. Drilled wells can go down more than a 1,000 feet. They can pass through several layers of water table, to obtain deep filtered water with good drinking quality and flow rate. Generally today most wells in the countryside are drilled wells.
Existing drilled/driven wells may offer the ideal system for obtaining water during Stage 2. But there are several problems that must be overcome. Power companies and aboveground electric lines will not survive a large comet impact. In general, well pumps use 240 VAC electrical pumps. Many gasoline/diesel powered home generators only provide 115 VAC and will be unable to drive these pumps. Therefore the key to tapping into existing drilled/driven wells is obtaining an electrical generator that provides the required voltage and surge current for the electric well pump.
Prior to impact, the existing well pump must be electrically and mechanically disconnected at the surface. The pump controller should be removed and placed in critical storage. The pump wellhead must be covered with 3 feet of granular soil. Sufficient fuel to power the generator must be stored for approximately 1,000 hours of operation. The generator will be operated intermittently, totaling an average of 1 hour per day.
I also recommend the installation of a 1,000-gallon spring tank that could act as a large water reservoir. Ideally, the location of the spring tank should be near the wellhead and between the two shelters that make up the Stage 2 Shelter Complex. After the tank is lowered into the excavated site, it should be backfilled with granular soil. The mechanical interconnects can be constructed prior to impact. The outlet piping from the water pump can be connected to the spring tank. The spring tank will also require piping for overflow runoff. A flat concrete lid should be placed on the spring tank. Tar or tar based roofing cement can be used to make a watertight seal between the lid and the tank. The spring tank should be covered with three feet of granular soil. After the impact this concrete lid could be exchanged with a concrete lid with a cast iron hand operated water pump. This old fashion method would allow easy access to water and eliminate the constant need to refill the 55-gallon barrels.
If the water is pulled from the well at a rate faster than the aquifer can recharge it from precipitation or underground flow, the water level in the well can be lowered and the well will go dry. Well water should primarily be used for drinking water and cooking. Well water can be used for washing but if the well begins to go dry, washing should be curtailed.
Existing Dug Well
Utilizing an existing dug well is a less-than-ideal approach for Stage 2 water supplies.
In a dug well approach, an individual works with his hands, shovels and a bucket and keeps digging until he reaches the water table, and the water fills the bottom of the hole. Dug wells generally are shallow wells near the surface. The quality of the water may not be very good and the well can be easily contaminated. Dug wells take water from the highest water table; they are extremely sensitive to contamination from the immediate vicinity of the well. Upper soil layers may be high in bacteria, organics and readily soluble iron and manganese.
Existing dug wells may be lined with fieldstones or bricks. Ground movement caused by the impact and the subsequent large earthquakes may cause the fieldstones to come loose and fall to the bottom of the well creating gapping holes in the well casing. A significant repair effort may be required after the impact to restore and maintain the well. Otherwise surface runoff can carry bacteria, viruses, heavy metals and other toxins into the well unimpeded. During the repair, it is very important for all joints of fieldstone be mortared and the entire outside surface of the well be uniformly coated with cement mortar to provide a smooth interior surface.
If this option is selected, store mortar to repair the lining of the dug well. Install a watertight cap on the well and cover the wellhead with 3 feet of granular soil.
A Stage 2 site, since it is physically located nearer the water table, may be flooded in the days immediately following the impact. This will contaminate the water system. For this reason, the water systems must be purified prior to use. To disinfect the water in a well, you will need to shock chlorinate the system with a concentration of bleach at approximately 250 parts per million. For a dug well with a casing diameter of 3 feet and a well depth of 20 feet, this would equate to 4 quarts of bleach. Regular household bleach (Sodium Hypo chlorite 5.25%) must be used to chlorinate the well. Do not use "fresh scent" bleach. Mix the bleach with water (1 part bleach with 10 parts water). Splash the disinfectant mixture around the wall or lining to ensure that the mixture contacts all parts of the well casing. Allow the disinfectant mixture to remain in the well for 24-hours before it is drained.
Existing Spring
Utilizing an existing spring is a good approach for Stage 2 water supplies provided the spring comes from solid rock.
The existing spring should already be plumbed to a spring tank. A spring tank acts as a large water reservoir. The Stage 2 Shelter Complex should be located very near the location of the spring tank. The spring tank should be covered with three feet of granular soil. After the impact, the covering can be removed and the concrete lid could be changed to a concrete lid with a cast iron hand water pump. This old fashion method of bringing up water is easy and eliminates the problem of contaminating an open spring tank.
New Drilled/Driven Well
Utilizing a new drilled/driven well is a good approach for constructing a Stage 2 water supply.
The advantage of creating a new drilled/driven well is this option allows selection of the well site. The location for the Stage 1 and the Stage 2 Shelter Complexes may even be one-and-the-same.
Besides the typical 240 VAC water pump configuration described under Existing Drilled/Driven Well, there are variety of other options.
Option 1. The new well could be wind powered. A 24-volt DC Sunrise Submersible Solar Water Pump uses only 300 watts and is capable of pulling water up from a depth of 600 feet. A Southwest Windpower Air 403 Wind Generator is an efficient wind powered electrical generator. Using this combination (or equivalent) could eliminate the requirement of integrating a battery system into the configuration.
Some areas of the country have wind levels that would make this approach logical. Wind patterns may be significantly altered during Stage 2. I would expect violent weather patterns. Currently trees buffet wind at the surface. In a post impact environment, many trees will be leveled, and winds may be unimpeded.
Since wind levels will vary from day to day, it will be very important to have a large water reservoir. I recommend the installation of a 1,000-gallon spring tank. The location of the spring tank should be near the wellhead and between the two shelters that make up the Stage 2 Shelter Complex. After the tank is lowered into the excavated site, it should be backfilled with granular soil. The mechanical interconnects can be constructed prior to impact. The outlet piping from the water pump can be connected to the spring tank. The spring tank will also require piping for overflow runoff. A flat concrete lid should be placed on the spring tank. Tar or roofing cement can be used to make a watertight seal between the lid and the tank. The spring tank should be covered with three feet of granular soil. After the impact this concrete lid on the spring tank could be changed to a concrete lid with a cast iron hand water pump. This old fashion method of pulling up water allows easy access to water and eliminates the need to constantly refill the 55-gallon barrels.
Option #2. This option is to use a hand-operated deep well water pump. This option I really, really like. The main drawback to this option is that the hardware will be next to impossible to obtain in the chaos before a comet impact. A few hand-operated deep well water pumps are able to pump water from conventional drilled/driven wells down to a well depth of approximately 200 feet. The hardware required includes a pump-head, cylinder, drop pipe and pump rod. Presently this hardware runs in the neighborhood of $1000. The hardware is described in this Website
Option #3. This option is to build a full-scale electric backup system, tapping into wind power generators. Electrical power is stored in a bank of deep discharge storage batteries. A battery charge controller is used to control charging storage batteries. The system includes AC converters that provide electricity for lighting and other normal AC outlets. The system provides 24 VDC for a deep well water pump. Gasoline/diesel generator provides backup power during extended quiet periods of minimal wind.
If selecting this option, there are two constraints that must be dealt with. First, cold will dramatically reduce the available electric power from a pack of storage batteries. Very cold weather can even result in freezing the battery’s electrolyte, cracking the battery monobloc, and the destruction of the battery pack. Since the outside temperature may fall into the range of -70 degrees Fahrenheit or below, the batteries will need to be housed within a heated space. Second, during discharge, batteries can generate hydrogen gas. This gas is highly explosive and must be vented outside the shelter.
I have not included construction details for this system because there are hundreds of configurations possible. Also, this is not a simple installation and to put one of these systems together requires expertise. Component directions are generally adequate but system direction lack important details, and as a result makes the whole process very difficult.
New Dug Well
Utilizing a new dug well with a poured concrete casing design is a good approach for Stage 2 water supplies.
In a dug well approach, an individual works with his hands, shovels and a bucket and keeps digging until he reaches the water table, and the water fills the bottom of the hole. Dug wells generally are shallow wells near the surface. The quality of the water may not be very good and the well can become contaminated. Dug wells take water from the highest water table; they are extremely sensitive to contamination from the immediate vicinity of the well. Upper soil layers may be high in bacteria, organics, and readily soluble iron and manganese.
There are several ways to construct this well; the plan, which I propose, has several advantages. First, the construction will be very strong and should survive the initial blast and subsequent earthquakes. Second, the design will minimize surface contamination. Third, the design is simple to build.
The first step is to identify a good well site. This is not an exact science. Underground geological maps may provide clues to the water depth in an area and may aid in this decision process. (Digging a well by hand is a tremendous amount of work. Knowing where to dig equates to saving many hours of effort and enhancing the probability of success in striking a well with a good water flow and water quality)
The next step is to dig the well. The pit should be round and 10 foot across. At the beginning it will be easy to fling the dirt out of the pit. But as you dig down, I recommend you construct a large sawhorse with a pulley to haul dirt out of the pit using a bucket. In the event of rain, the large sawhorse could be converted into a tent to keep the rain out of the excavation. When you reach the water table, excavate the pit another foot or two if possible. Then backfill the pit with large crushed rock for a depth of 2 feet. (The pit may need to be drained periodically using a portable water pump until the first tier of concrete is poured.)
The next step is to construct the framework of the well forms. These forms will be used to create the well casing from poured concrete. This framework will be constructed using sheets of ¾" plywood and 2x6 lumber. Refer to Diagram 1 and Diagram 2. Each center support will require two 2x6 boards cut to 47 ¼ " lengths and six 2x6 boards cut to 44 ¼ " lengths. The plywood will be supported at three points along the length – bottom, middle and top. The top brace shall join one plywood form with the next. Therefore, this brace must be centered in the middle of the two forms.
Once this framework is constructed, it should be lowered into the pit. This can be done, one eight-foot section at a time. As the sections are joined they can be nailed together. The forms should be centered in the middle of the pit. Once the first framework is centered, the outside must be backfilled with one foot of gravel. The inside of the framework should be backfilled with one-foot of large 1"-2" crushed rock. This gravel and crushed rock will help to hold the form in place at the base. It will also provide a seal to prevent the concrete from filling the voids in the crushed rock layer below it. Finally, the gravel should be covered with 6-mil black plastic. The objective is to prevent the force of the poured concrete at the base of the pit from digging through the gravel layer. As the framework is nailed together, the height of the framework should extend above the surface area of the pit by 1 foot.
The next step is to construct reinforcing for the well casing. Remesh will be used for this reinforcement. (One roll of remesh 150’x5’, 6x6, 10 gauge currently costs $56.84) The heavy metal screen should be cut to 24-foot lengths. The screen can then be joined together to form a hollow cylinder. The end of the screen should overlap 1-foot and be tied together using pliable wire. The first cylinder should be placed around the wooden framework and lowered to the bottom of the well. The support should be centered equal distance from the 4 framework corners.
The next step is to pour the concrete casing. I recommend using a strong concrete mix for this application. I recommend a 7,000-pound mix (9-bag mix) with fiber mesh (polypropylene fibers for added strength). Approximately 2.3 cubic yards of concrete will be required for each foot of dug well depth. The concrete must be poured carefully and slowly. The weight of the concrete combined with the depth of the well will produce a significant force that could damage the plywood framework. I recommend concrete be poured until it fills the depth of one sheet of plywood framework and then be allowed to set up for 24 hours before pouring the next section. (Under this approach, a 24-foot deep well would take a 3 days to pour.) As the level of concrete approaches the top of the remesh, place the next cylinder into position and continue the pouring.
The top of the well casing should extend one foot above the ground. This is to prevent contaminant from easily entering the well. An outer 5’x5’ wooden framework should be set to contain the concrete on this final pour. The surface of the top should be leveled and the concrete should be trowelled smooth.
A 5’x5’ concrete lid can be poured also at this time. This can be done by laying a sheet of 6-mil black plastic on flat ground. Wooden framework can be set into place. The concrete can be poured. A sheet of metal grid can be dropped into the framework during the middle of the pour, for added support. It is important that the top of the lid be leveled flat.
After the well casing is hard, the process of removing the wooden framework must begin. It is important to remove all the wood to minimize well contamination. As you disassemble the framework be careful not to get impaled from protruding nails.
The well lid once hardened can be flipped over and marriage to the top of the well casing. This joint should be tight with very little space between the lid and the top of the well casing. Otherwise the well can become seriously contaminated following impact. Tar or tar based roofing cement can be spread on the top of the well casing before the lid is put in place to provide a good seal.
After the impact, the lid can be removed and water can be pulled up with rope and buckets. A better method is to install a hand water pump. This method will keep the well sealed and minimize contamination.
It is very important that all sewage be kept over 100 feet from the well.
A Stage 2 site, since it is physically located nearer the water table, may be flooded in the days immediately following the impact. This will contaminate the water system. For this reason, the water systems must be purified prior to use.
To disinfect the water in a well, you will need to shock chlorinate the system with a concentration of bleach at approximately 250 parts per million. For a dug well with a casing 4 feet square and a well depth of 20 feet, this would equate to 9 quarts of bleach. Regular household bleach (Sodium Hypo chlorite 5.25%) must be used to chlorinate the well. Do not use "fresh scent" bleach. Mix the bleach with water (1 part bleach with 10 parts water). Splash the disinfectant mixture around the wall or lining to ensure that the mixture contacts all parts of the well casing. Allow the disinfectant mixture to remain in the well for 24-hours before it is drained.
New Spring
Utilizing a new spring is a good approach for Stage 2 water supplies.
There are two types of springs. Springs that come out of solid rock and those that come out of a gravel bed. A gravel bed springs should not be used because this type of spring is easily contaminated by surface runoff.
A wet mushy area of ground is indicative of a spring location. Digging into the spot may reveal water oozing out of the ground. Continue to dig, following the stream of water to a rock source.
A 1,000-gallon spring tank should be installed near the spring to act as a large water reservoir. After the tank is lowered into the excavated site, it should be backfilled with granular soil. The pipe should be installed at the spring and sealed with concrete. The other end of the pipe should feed the spring tank. The spring tank will also require piping for overflow runoff. Both these connections to the tank should be sealed with concrete. A flat concrete lid should be placed on the spring tank. Tar or tar based roofing cement can be used to make a water tight seal between the lid and the tank. The spring tank should be covered with three feet of granular soil. After the impact this concrete lid could be changed to a concrete lid with a cast iron hand water pump. This old fashion method of pulling up water would allow easy access to water and eliminate the problem of contaminating an open spring tank.
Surface Water
After the impact, surface water (including rain, snow, water from cisterns, rivers and lakes) will be very polluted with strong acidity, toxins, heavy metals, decaying organic matter and possibly even salt water. Surface water should be viewed as the water of last resort. If you are forced to rely on this water, process this water using an effective water treatment system.
Emergency Back-Up Approach
One back-up approach if the primary water infrastructure fails and provided the water table is near the surface is to construct a simple hand dug well. This is nothing fancy and will provide only a marginal contingency. But it still beats surface water. Materials should be set aside for this construction. This will include 2 twenty-foot long plastic culverts. I recommend the use of 24" culvert, double wall corrugated plastic, 20-foot lengths. These presently cost $320 each. They are light enough that I could pick one up easily by hand.
In an emergency, a 5-foot diameter well pit can be excavated by hand until the water table is reached. The bottom of the well should be backfilled with a 2-foot base of 1-2" large crushed rock. Onto this the well casing (plastic culvert) should be placed. In backfilling the well casing, it is important to use the right soil. Place several layers of graded pea stone above the larger crushed stone to act as a transition zone. This will prevent the backfill from settling into the crushed stone. The rest of the backfill (10 feet minimum) of the casing must use an impervious layer of clay or fine silt to seal the wellhead.
The plastic culvert should extend a minimum of 1-foot above the ground surface. If the culvert will be cut to fit, the cutting must be done prior to joining culvert sections together. Sections might be joined together using 12" wide or wider metal roof flashing. The flashing could wrap around the outside of the pipe joint. Screws could be driven through the flashing into the plastic culverts to hold the seam together. As the pipe joint is assembled, silicon caulking could be forced into the voids to create a water tight seal.
Water can be pulled from the well using a rope tied to a bucket.
If the primary water system for Stage 2 is a drilled or driven well, I recommend that a second jet water pump be held in reserve, in case the primary pump fails.
Water Treatment System
Clean drinking water is essential. After the impact, surface water may be so polluted with contaminant that it will be undrinkable and may be poisonous. All water that is used for drinking/cooking must be neutralized, filtered and purified prior to use. This requirement is especially true for the first few months after the impact event.
The purification process consists of 3 steps: neutralization, filtering, bacterial treatment. Three tanks will be used; one for each step. I recommend a 55 gallon plastic barrel for each of these tanks. These barrels come in two varieties: sealed lids and removable lids. The removable lids are held on the barrel using a banding clamp. I recommend the 3 barrels used in the water treatment process have removable lids. I also recommend that they be food grade quality plastic barrels and new if possible. If you are forced to rely on used barrels for this process, insure the barrels have not been contaminated with hazardous chemicals.
Neutralization Barrel
After the impact, surface water will be highly acidic. This water will contaminate underground water. Time will flush the water supply and make it pure. But this process may take several months. Until that happens, you will have to deal with it. The acid content of the water will be strong enough to make you very sick and perhaps result in your death. What we are presently calling "acid rain" will be a mere shadow of the acid rain that will follow an impact event. Think of a milder version of battery acid. The first step in water purification process is to neutralize the water’s acidity.
Generally, when an acid is combined with a base, it produces water, salt and heat. The salt may be water-soluble and remain in the solution or it may be non-soluble and particulate out and collect on the bottom of the barrel. For our purposes, it is more advantageous to create non-soluble salts. Liquid that has a pH less than 7 is considered an acid and greater than 7 is considered a base or alkaline. In the neutralization process, we will use powder alkaline because it has a slow reaction or transfer rate and therefore less violent. (If a strong liquid base is poured into a strong acid, the reaction would produce instantaneous heat that would boil the acid and violently splattering the liquid likely producing injury.) Since we are using powdered alkaline with a slow transfer rate, we may have to stir the water during the neutralization process to obtain a complete reaction.
The process of neutralizing an acid can also release hydrogen as a byproduct. Hydrogen is very explosive. Therefore this neutralization process must be performed in a well-ventilated area. Using carbonates for neutralization will produce carbon dioxide gas, which will escape if it doesn’t dissolve in the water, and make a giant soda-pop type solution.
The first step of this process is to fill the Neutralization Barrel with contaminated water. As you fill this barrel, pour the water through a coarse filter, such as cheesecloth, to remove any large contaminants. Add a mild powdered base/alkaline slowly to the water. The following types of alkaline are recommended: baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), chalk (calcium carbonate), plaster-of-paris or gypsum (calcium sulfate). (Another base, lime (calcium oxide) could be used but I felt that it might be too dangerous to work with unless the process was tightly controlled.) During the treatment, test the water periodically for pH. The pH can be determined using a portable battery powered pH meter or with litmus strip. An acceptable range of drinking water pH is from 6.5 to 8.5. When the pH value falls within this range; stop adding the alkaline, the water is neutralized.
If the litmus approach is used, I would recommend a kit, such as colorpHast pH Strips manufactured by EM Science. I would recommend the kit EM-9578-36 because it focuses on the pH range from 2.0 to 9.0. The kit provides a comparator matching sheet, which allows precision in determining pH levels. In a pinch, litmus paper can be fabricated from red cabbage and coffee filters. Instructions.
As time progresses, nature will heal the natural water supply and the acidity levels will drop off. At this point discontinue the use of the neutralization process.
Sand/Gravel Filter Barrel
After the impact, the surface water will be contaminated with a variety of organic and inorganic materials. The inorganic material will include many heavy metals, released by the energy of the impact event. These must be filtered out of the drinking water. To accomplish this, the water must pass through a filter.
A sand/gravel filter barrel could be used as the filter medium. The design of this filter is similar to the Slow Sand Filter in Water for the World.
Begin with a 55-gallon plastic barrel with the lid removed. The installation of a drain valve on the base of the barrel can be done using the normal hardware that connects the water supply outlet to a toilet. This hardware can be purchased new or ripped from an existing toilet in a pinch. Obtain a toilet ballcock, toilet supply tube and a ball valve. The ballcock will need to be disassembled. Pictured in the photograph is a disassembled toilet ballcock, a 3/8" OD x 20" plastic toilet supply tube, and a straight shut off valve with a 3/8" OD compression connection. The ballcock has a black rubber cone washer that marriages to the 55-gallon barrel and provides a watertight seal. A hole will need to be drilled at the base to allow insertion of the ballcock. The long tube of the ballcock will be on the inside of the barrel. The plastic toilet supply tube and the straight shut off valve will be on the outside of the 55-gallon barrel.
The barrel should be filled in the following manner. The bottom layer should be filled with medium-sized crushed rock to a depth of 6 inches. The next layer up is a medium-to-fine layer of gravel 6 inches thick. The top layer should use fine sand. The sand should be filled to within 3 inches of the top of the barrel.
Before you begin to use the barrel it should be flushed to remove residual dirt. Close the spout and fill the barrel with water. Open the spout and drain the water. Discard the wastewater. Repeat the process, until the water exiting the outlet is clear.
At this stage, you can pour neutralized water in the top of the barrel. Filtered water will come out the spout at the bottom of the barrel.
The clean washed sand, gravel and crushed rock should be stored prior to the impact event. There should be sufficient material to allow for 4 exchanges of materials. (The filter barrel will become contaminated with time and the sand, gravel and crushed rock will need to be replaced with fresh material.) Prior to impact, place a sheet of 6-mil black plastic on the ground in the area of the Stage 1 Shelter Complex. Place the sand, gravel and crushed rock on one half and fold the plastic over to cover the pile. Cover the pile with 1 foot of ground. The granular soil used in shelter construction could be used as a filter media but this ground will have been contaminated. I feel that it would be better to have fresh material to work with.
Chemical Treatment Barrel
The filtered water will contain microbiological organisms that must be eliminated. These contaminants must be killed through chemical treatment or by boiling the water. If you decide to kill the bacteria chemically, the third barrel will act as a chemical treatment tank. If you decide to purify the water by boiling, this barrel will act as a water storage tank.
One method of chemical treatment commonly used by cities is chlorination. Approximately 11 teaspoons of liquid chlorine bleach will kill the bacteria in a 55-gallon barrel.
Boil the water, especially water given to small children.
Use different containers (buckets) to transfer water from one tank to the next during the water purification process. Do not mix; otherwise you stand the risk of cross contaminating the water supply.
Gravity-Fed Water Treatment System
I was struck with the thought that I could design a better way to filter surface water than the method described above. I designed, engineered & tested a modern design called a Gravity-Fed Water Treatment System constructed from two 55-gallon open-head plastic water drums and other common parts obtained from a plumbing store.
Distillation
Recent research produced significant uncertainty to the assumption that a large impact would result in an "impact winter". If these finding turn out to be correct, it opens up a fairly simple solution to the water purification process, distillation. Water can be treated using a simple to fabricate solar water distillation unit Solar Water Distillation Unit.. (The only recommendation that I might make to this design is to substitute clear plastic in place of the glass. This is due to the fragility of glass.) When acids undergo distillation, some of the acid vapors will collect in the treated water. For this reason, I recommend the water first be neutralized with alkaline prior to distillation.
Other Treatment Methods
There are several alternative approaches for water treatment. These alternatives can be incorporated into the Stage 2 water treatment. The table below provides a broad comparison of water treatment methods.
Acid Neutralization
Eliminate Toxins and Heavy Metals
Eliminate Microbiological Organisms
Salt Removal
Neutralization Barrel
X
Sand/Gravel Filter Barrel
X
Chemical Treatment Barrel
X
Gravity-Fed Water Treatment System
X
X
X
Boiling Water
X
Ceramic Water Filter
X
X
Charcoal Filter
X
Deep Well Aquifer
X
X
X
Rock Spring Aquifer
X
X
X
Distillation Process
X
X
X
Ion Exchange Resin
X
X
Reverse Osmosis
X
X
X
X
A ceramic gravity feed water filter removes both contaminants such as heavy metals but also microbiological organisms. This ceramic filter can be a very useful item in this type of emergency. Manufacturers include the British Berkefeld, AquaRain, and Doulton.
Water can also be treated by passing it through a charcoal filter (such as Brita Pitcher Filter) to remove any residue of heavy metals.
Ion exchange resins is another tool normally used to remove nitrates, sulfates, sulfites, and carbonates from water. These are found in water softeners. Also the system uses water softener salt in the process and this material must be stored as critical goods. For this process to work properly, the input water must be filtered to remove inorganic and organic foulants. In order for this process to neutralize acids, a specific type of resins called strong base anion resins must be used.
The advantage of using a portable reverse osmosis unit is in their ability to remove acids, toxins, heavy metals, bacteria, viruses and salt.